Author : Wahid Ahmad
Complex hunter-gatherer societies
emerged against all odds during a significant transition from 13,000 to 4,000
BC. They inhabited diverse environments, from river valleys to coastal deserts,
initiating the most significant transition towards permanent settlements and
advanced social structures.
In Southwest Asia, around 23,000
years ago, inhabitants of the Ohalo settlement crafted wood and brush huts,
ground wild wheat and barley and made early attempts to store food.
The Ohalo settlement hints at a future
shift to settled lifestyles during the Holocene. Between 13,000 and 8,000 BC,
the eastern Mediterranean transitioned from simple hunter-gatherer societies to
more complex ones and eventually to farming.
Around 15,000 years ago, the
Levant was home to the highly adaptable Kebaran people, whose life swung not
only in wooded areas but also in the challenging terrains of the Negev and the
Sinai deserts.
Their lifestyle emphasized
mobility; they cleverly dispersed to the uplands during summers and sought refuge
in caves near lowland lakes during cold days. While plant foods were not the
central focus, they did adapt to lower elevations where wild cereal grasses
flourished.
Fifteen thousand years ago,
warming transformed Southwest Asia. Plants climbed to higher ground, creating
denser cereals. Hunter-gatherers adapted with ground stone tools,
revolutionizing seed processing for storage. This marked a pivotal shift toward
complex societies in the region.
Between 14500 and 11500 years ago
the lands of Southwest Asia, especially the Mediterranean Levant, were teeming
with life. Abundant seasonal rainfall transformed the region into a paradise,
supporting gazelle migrations and flourishing vegetation, including cereal
grasses and nut-bearing trees.
The Natufian Culture is a
fascinating group of hunters and foragers who thrived in this bountiful
environment. Named after a prominent dry valley or wadi, the Natufians were
more than your average hunter-gatherers. For some 3,500 years or around 140
generations, they lived in the Levant, developing a sophisticated way of life.
Unlike their ancestors, who
adapted to drier conditions, the Natufians crafted a complex strategy for
hunting and foraging. Some were constantly on the move, while others
established semi-permanent settlements, and a few lucky communities even
enjoyed a more settled, sedentary lifestyle in ideal locations.
Thanks to increased rainfall and
a wealth of game, many Natufian groups established permanent villages, among
the first ever built.
These villages were bustling with
activity during harvest season, as people camped across the landscape,
collecting food, hunting migrating gazelle, and celebrating the richness of
their environment.
Think about a Natufian autumn,
filled with the excitement of harvesting. As deer were shooed away from the
mast, people gathered ripe nuts and embarked on the laborious yet rewarding
process of turning them into meals.
This involved winnowing,
pounding, and leaching the nuts with water, creating a nutritious meal stored
for later consumption. Not only did they use these nuts for sustenance, but
some were even turned into a special treat –beer. The Natufians weren't just
surviving; they were thriving, turning the bounty of their environment into a
rich and varied way of life.
In the intriguing era of the
Natufian Culture, life took a
distinctive turn. Unlike their mobile ancestors, the Natufians settled into
semi-subterranean dwellings with stone foundations and brush and timber upper
structures. These communal homes, used for generations, were larger and more
permanent, showcasing a shift towards a sedentary lifestyle.
The Natufians were not your
typical hunter-gatherers; they intensified their hunting and foraging efforts.
Migrating gazelle herds, wild emmer, barley, acorn, almond, and pistachio were
on their menu. These easily storable resources led to larger settlements
averaging about 700 square meters, featuring semi-subterranean houses, storage
pits, and pavements.
Their toolkit reflected this
shift with specialized plant-processing tools, showcasing their mastery of food
processing. Larger Natufian sites strategically positioned near the coastal
plains or grassland valleys and hill zones enabled them to exploit a variety of
resources. These locations facilitated the exploitation of spring cereal crops,
fall nut harvests, and game, creating a reliable, year-round food supply.
The Natufians were unique; they
enjoyed months of abundance, exploiting seasonal resources and collaborating
with neighbouring communities in large-scale gazelle hunts. While their choice
to settle remains a mystery, they adopted a "broad-spectrum"
subsistence strategy, collecting a wide range of plant foods, nuts, game, fish,
and waterfowl. Connected to a specific territory, the Natufians returned to the
same locations annually, establishing a sense of ownership and connection to
the landscape, even incorporating long-term memory and emotional ties to their
ancestors.
Symbolism became paramount in
marking Natufian identities. Stone tools and seashell ornaments distinguished
separate base camps over generations, emphasizing a corporate identity. This
era was not only about survival but about establishing roots, memories, and a
cultural identity that shaped the Natufians' enduring connection to their
environment.
The good times of the Natufian
Culture faced a chilly setback around 13,000 years ago, marked by a
1,000-year-long cold period known as the Younger Dryas. Europe felt the icy
grip, and Southwest Asia was hit with severe drought. Despite these challenges,
Natufian communities, with their diverse food sources, managed to weather the
storm, keeping stable populations within their territories.
As the drought intensified,
Natufian communities faced crowded conditions, leading some to experiment with
cereal agriculture to supplement their foraging lifestyle. By the end of the
Natufian era around 10,500 BC, local populations had significantly increased,
but signs of stress appeared, likely exacerbated by the arid conditions of the
Younger Dryas.
The changing climate posed
challenges, as aridity reduced cereal habitats in the Mediterranean zone,
pushing the most productive stands to higher altitudes. Forced to stay near
permanent water sources, Natufians found the cost of harvesting cereals and nuts
at remote locations prohibitive. Faced with declining staples, these complex
hunter-gatherer communities turned to deliberate cereal planting on a modest
scale, drawing on their nearly 2,000 years of experience with cereal plants.
This Natufian scenario wasn't
unique; similar cultural changes unfolded in different parts of the world. In
some areas, these changes preadapted people for deliberate agriculture and
animal domestication. However, in places like southern California, where
farming wasn't feasible, complex hunter-gatherer societies thrived until modern
times. The story of the Natufians reflects a global pattern of adaptation and
innovation in the face of environmental challenges.
Over 10,000 years ago, the Natufian people showcased a rich symbolic and supernatural life, evident in sites like the Hilazon Tachtit cave in Israel. The burial of a 45-year-old woman with disabilities featured extraordinary care and significant grave goods, including tortoise shells and eagle wings, suggesting a shamanic role.
Shamans, or "people of
power," possessed supernatural abilities, acting as intermediaries between the living and the supernatural through rituals and hallucinogens. The meticulous
burial suggests the importance of symbolism and the supernatural in Natufian
society, foreshadowing the transition to more complex hunter-gatherer societies
and eventually farming.