Author : Wahid Ahmad
Pastoralism
and Animal Husbandry
The evidence strongly
suggests that dogs were the first animals to be domesticated. This happened due
to a long-standing relationship between packs of wild dogs and human groups.
The earliest signs of dog domestication date back to around 12,000 years ago in
Southeast Asia, 11,000–13,000 years ago in North America, 9,000 years ago in
East Asia, and 8,000 years ago in South America. Dogs were associated with hunting
peoples during the Upper Palaeolithic period, which is way before systematic
plant cultivation began.
Among present-day
hunter-gatherer societies, Aboriginal Australians have a long history of using
dingoes, which suggests that the domestication of dogs predates the cultivation
of plants in mainland Asia.
The domestication of
most other animals seems to have happened alongside the development of
agriculture. For example, evidence shows the emergence of domestic sheep in
Southwest Asia around 10,750 years ago, in Europe around 8,000 years ago, and
in India around 7,000 years ago. Similarly, pigs were domesticated in China
around 6,000 years ago, and guinea pigs and camelids were domesticated in South
America by 7,000 years ago. These domestication events coincide with the
transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic cultural traditions.
The process of
domestication is primarily observed through changes in bone structure, although
genetic techniques and other methods allow us to reconstruct possible
transitions from wild to domesticated animals. Additionally, humans played a
role in intentionally dispersing animals from their original centers of
evolution. In areas where there's only recent evidence of animal husbandry
outside known areas of domestication, it's presumed that diffusion occurred.
Today, agriculturalists
keep various domesticated animals for transportation, traction, sensing,
producing manure, and as a source of food and non-edible materials. This ranges
from honeybees to monkeys, but the main domesticated animals are fowl, dogs,
and ungulates (hoofed mammals).
It's important to
distinguish between domestication, which involves species modification over
time, and cultivation, which involves a close ecological relationship between
humans and plants or animals. Animals, unlike plants, are secondary producers
and rely on plants for energy. Thus, the main limitation on keeping animal
stock is the availability of adequate feed. Movement is a common response to
feed shortages, although some sedentary populations have specialized in fodder
production.
In some societies, the
ritual importance of certain domesticated animals can be as significant as or
even more important than their material uses. For example, pigs in Vanuatu,
horses among the Tuareg, and cows in Hindu India hold great ritual
significance.
Animal
husbandry
Animal husbandry, which
involves the care and management of animals, needs to be looked at separately
from the different ways it's used in economies. If we don't do this, it can
lead to confusion. To understand this better, we should consider the various
ways humans interact with animals.
Firstly, there's
"asocial predation," where solitary animals hunt and kill prey for
themselves. Then, there's "social predation," where predators
cooperate, like when wolves hunt in packs or humans hunt together.
But then, there's a
different category altogether, which is "domestication." This
involves controlling animals' breeding, taming them to live with humans, and
herding them.
Now, when we talk about
animal husbandry, we often focus on pastoralism, which involves raising animals
for economic purposes. Pastoralism can take many forms, from nomadic herding to
settle farming with animals.
For example, nomadic
pastoralism involves constantly moving with the herds, while sedentary animal
husbandry means staying in one place.
There's also a
distinction between pastoralism and ranching. Pastoralism typically involves
protecting and breeding animals, while ranching often relies more on natural
increase and periodic predation.
The term
"pastoralism" is used to describe communities that rely on livestock
for various aspects of their livelihood, but it's not always their sole means
of survival. For example, in East Africa and among the Fulani people of
northern Nigeria, livestock farming is important for protein, but these
communities also engage in agriculture.
Nomadic pastoralism in
Central Asia emerged due to increasing herd sizes beyond the available grazing
land, leading to seasonal migrations in search of pasture. These groups
maintained close ties with settled communities, often trading for cereal
grains.
Social organization
among pastoralist groups is typically centered around family units and domestic
labor division. Larger socio-political organization is often tribal and based
on lineage. Access to pasture is determined by these social relations.
Pastoralist communities
live in marginal environments and employ various strategies to cope with
hazards. Movement, particularly seasonal transhumance, is common. Seasonality
influences settlement patterns and social organization.
As resources decline,
intensification of existing practices occurs, sometimes supplemented by
hunting, gathering, and cultivation. Pastoralist populations often exhibit slow
population growth, delayed marriage, and other adaptive behaviours.
However, pastoralism is
subject to periodic decline due to factors like drought and forced resettlement
by governments. Market integration and desertification have increased
vulnerability, leading to underdevelopment or incorporation into wider
economies through practices like ranching or socialist collectives.
Gujjar
and Bakkarwal
The Gujjar and
Bakkarwal tribes are traditionally pastoral communities found mainly in the
Himalayan region of India, particularly in the states of Jammu and Kashmir.
These tribes have a long history of nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism, which
means they move with their herds of livestock in search of grazing land
according to the seasons.
During the summer
months, the Gujjar and Bakkarwal tribes migrate to higher altitudes in the
Himalayas, where the weather is cooler and the pastureland is abundant. Here,
they set up temporary settlements known as "dhanis" or
"goth" or “kotha†and graze
their herds of sheep, goats, and sometimes cattle on the alpine meadows.
In the winter months,
as the snow begins to fall and the high-altitude pastures become inaccessible,
they descend to the lower valleys with milder climates. This seasonal migration
pattern allows them to utilize different grazing grounds throughout the year,
ensuring the well-being of their livestock.
The Gujjar and
Bakkarwal communities have a deep connection with their animals, which are not
only a source of livelihood but also integral to their cultural identity. They
practice traditional methods of animal husbandry, including breeding, herding,
and tending to the health needs of their livestock.
Despite facing
challenges such as encroachment on grazing lands, changing weather patterns,
and conflicts with wildlife, the Gujjar and Bakkarwal tribes continue to uphold
their pastoral way of life, preserving their rich cultural heritage and
maintaining a sustainable relationship with the natural environment.