Author : Wahid Ahmad
Julian Steward's Cultural Ecology: A
Methodology for Understanding Human Adaptation"
Introduction:
Anthropologist Julian Steward (1902-1972) introduced the term "cultural
ecology" as a methodology aimed at comprehending how humans adapt to
diverse environments. This concept, outlined in his work "Theory of
Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution" (1955), focuses
on how cultural change is induced by adaptation to the
environment.
Main Points:
1.
Historical Inheritance of
Human Adaptation: Steward emphasized that
human adaptation is partly historically inherited, encompassing technologies,
practices, and knowledge that enable survival in a given environment. He
asserted that while the environment influences human adaptation, it does not
determine it. Steward's insight separated the impact of the environment from the
internal dynamics of a culture within a specific environment.
2.
Separate Evolutionary
Tracks: Over the long term, Steward
proposed that environment and culture follow more or less separate evolutionary
tracks. The mutual influence between them depends on their respective
structures. This assertion challenged the notion of environmental determinism,
which some social scientists, particularly those with a Marxist perspective,
found problematic.
3.
Cultural Ecology
Methodology: Steward's methodology involved
documenting the technologies and methods used to exploit the environment for
sustenance. He examined patterns of human behavior and culture associated with
environmental exploitation and assessed how these patterns influenced other
aspects of culture. For instance, he explored how environmental factors, such
as rainfall patterns in a drought-prone region, could become central to
everyday life and influence the development of religious belief systems.
4.
Role in Anthropology and
Archaeology: Steward's concept of cultural
ecology gained popularity among anthropologists and archaeologists in the
mid-20th century. It played a crucial role in the development of processual
archaeology in the 1960s, where cultural change was understood through the lens
of technology and its effects on environmental adaptation.
In his early writings, Julian Steward departed from both environmental and cultural
determinism by advocating the use of the comparative method to assess causal
connections between social structure and modes of subsistence. His
functionalist approach focused on the operation of variables about a
limited set, rather than the entire social system, contrasting with British
functionalists who prioritized institutional roles in maintaining structural
equilibrium (synchronic approach). Steward's functionalism was uniquely
concerned with change over time called (a diachronic approach).
His
method involved three key procedures:
·
Analyzing the relationship
between the subsistence system and the environment.
·
Analyzing behaviour patterns associated with a specific subsistence technology.
·
Ascertaining how the
behaviour pattern linked to a subsistence system affects other cultural aspects.
The cultural ecological approach posits a connection between
environmental resources, subsistence technology, and the behaviour required to
utilize technology effectively. Steward's pivotal focus was not on nature or
culture but on resource utilization due to the immediacy and urgency of food
and shelter needs in all societies.
Example
This
approach is exemplified in Steward's study of the western Shoshoni, inhabitants
of the semiarid Great Basin in North America. As hunter-gatherers relying on
simple tools, the Shoshoni utilized grass seeds, roots, and berries, with group
hunting for rabbits and antelope being seasonal. Steward demonstrated how
subsistence requirements influenced social units, resulting in fluid and
fragmentary structures without distinct leadership patterns, especially during
winter when pine nuts were gathered for storage. Steward hypothesized that as
technological complexity improved, the immediate impact of the environment on
behavior would decrease, with social factors becoming more critical in
explaining change in complex societies.
Example:
The
Inuit, residing in the Arctic regions of northern Canada, faced a distinct
environmental challenge compared to the Shoshoni, in a harsh, cold climate with
limited vegetation and abundant ice.
The
Inuit adapted to a challenging environment through a unique subsistence
technology and social structure. The nuclear family's role in resource
utilization is enhancing mobility for swift relocation based on animal
migrations or resource shifts. In a sparsely distributed resource setting, the
Inuit's adaptability is crucial. Sled dogs and sledges are instrumental for
efficient mobility across vast ice expanses. Subsistence patterns influence
cultural aspects, fostering community and interdependence. Adaptive technology
contributes to distinct art forms like carvings and storytelling traditions.
Critical analysis
Steward's
research strategy was a departure from previous human-environment theories,
which often lacked empirical grounding or focused solely on lists of cultural
traits. Cultural ecology, in contrast, emphasized detailed analysis of social
interactions, movements, and work activities, enabling the identification of
cause-and-effect relationships.
Critics
argue that Steward's approach is challenging to implement in the field and
overly prioritizes subsistence behaviors. However, Steward expanded the scope
of cultural ecology to include political, religious, military, and aesthetic
aspects of culture over time. Scholars like Clifford Geertz emphasized the
importance of historical, political, and ritual factors in human-environment
interactions.
Despite
its revolutionary emphasis on human-environment interactions, Steward's
approach overlooked demographic makeup, epidemiology,
competition with other groups, and human physiological adaptations. Critics highlight
that Steward's approach lacked clear statistical sampling and overlooked cases
where correlations did not hold. While Steward identified functional
relationships, he struggled to establish causality.
Nevertheless,
Steward's work played a crucial role in defining the field of human-environment
interaction, focusing on behaviour, subsistence, and technology. Its
limitations became apparent over time, leading to the development of alternative
research strategies.